Conservation and Management

Developing the Indonesian Sea Partnership program

Tighe, S.A., Pratikto, W.A., Muchtar, Z., Knight, M., 2003. CRMP Collection 1997-2003, Coastal University Series, Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett, USA
Over the past 30 years, there have been hundreds of international, national and subnational programs initiated by government, organizations and citizen groups that attempted to more effectively govern the world’s coastal and marine ecosystems. Among these efforts, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has been a pioneer since 1985 in working with developing countries to improve the management of their coastal ecosystem to benefit coastal people and their environment. Building on its experience, as part of its Natural Resources Management Program, USAID initiated planning for the Indonesia Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP, or Proyek Pesisir) in 1996. This program was planned and implemented in cooperation with the Government of Indonesia through its National Development Planning Agency (BAPPENAS) and with the support of the Coastal Resources Center at the University of Rhode Island (CRC/URI) in the United States. USAID’s partnership with CRC/URI has been central to the delivery of coastal resources management programs to numerous USAID-supported countries for almost two decades. CRC/URI designs and implements long-term field programs that work to build the local and national capacity to effectively practice coastal governance. It also carries out analyses and shares experiences drawn from within and across field projects. These lessons learned are disseminated worldwide through training programs, publications and participation in global forums.

Funding in integrated coastal zone management partnerships

McGlashan, D.J., 2003. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46, 393-396
In countries where integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is not enshrined in statute, a voluntary approach has often been taken. This review examines issues relating to funding in ICZM partnerships,particularly the local coastal fora (LCF) network in the UK. It highlights the lack of sustainable long-term funding mechanisms for organisations with the core aim of sustainable management of coastal resources. The relative difficulty of raising funds for core costs as opposed to projects is addressed, as is the lack of business/industry involvement. The hamster wheel syndrome of fundraising is noted, where staff spend too much time trying to raise money, as opposed to developing ICZM. The resultant impact on the staff and the operation of the LCF is considered. Examples beyond the UK are considered, as are the problems associated with pump-prime funding and implementation. Is the lack of formality in ICZM the crux of the funding problem?

Analysis on the sustainable financing of a network of marine protected areas in Southeast Asia

Merkl, A., Claussen, J., Thompson, H., Winship, J., 2003. Vth IUCN World Parks Congress, Durban, South Africa
The World Commission on Protected Areas’ (WCPA) Southeast Asian Marine Working Group recently released their “Regional Action Plan to Strengthen a Resilient Network of Effective Marine Protected Areas in Southeast Asia in 2002-2012” (“RAP”). The RAP identified five high priority issues for the management of MPAs: 1) planning and design; 2) adaptive management; 3) coordination and enforcement; 4) community awareness and development; and 5) sustainable financing. As part of the sustainable financing component of the RAP, the Task Force has commissioned the Conservation and Community Investment Forum (CCIF) to develop a detailed set of cost projections for a network of MPAs, including full financial pro-formas, anticipated budget shortfalls, and potential local, national and international revenue sources. This paper details the methodology used in by CCIF in such effort, as well as conclusions related to the analytical work that CCIF has done in connection with the RAP. Designing a Business Plan Solution The Nature Conservancy’s SEACMPA and CCIF believe that the first step towards developing a network of financially sustainable MPAs is to create a business plan which lays out a complete vision for how a healthy network of MPAs is to be funded. While this does not preclude the need to refine and implement specific local revenue generating mechanisms, it is critical that a comprehensive business plan which defines the needs and potential solutions for financing an entire network of MPAs in a given region is developed. This business plan should systematically address the financing of a set of planned or existing MPAs which combine high biodiversity value, high donor interest, and the greatest possible overlap among the interest of WCPA members. CCIF believes that the most effective approach in the funding of protected areas is one that addresses the diversity of needs most often found within eco-regional systems. At this point CCIF has conducted a full costing of the MPAs in Southeast Asia, and developed an endowment model that calculates the endowment size necessary to operate the these MPAs at different levels of sophistication.

Coral reef rehabilitation and management program in Indonesia

Hidayati, D., 2003. Proceedings of the 3rd International Surfing Reef Symposium, Raglan, New Zealand
Indonesia is one of the richest coral reef countries in the world, with 75,000 square kilometers of coral reefs or about 15 percent of the world’s total. The rich coral reefs, however, are mostly under serious threat. A 2000 survey showed that only approximately 6 percent were in excellent condition, 24 percent in good condition and 70 percent in poor condition. This paper discusses coral reef management in Indonesia, with three main issues: the reef threats, the trade-offs between the resource potentials and losses, and the need for sustainable development of the coral reef ecosystem. The analysis began with the main issue on coral reef status that highlights the seriousness of the resource conditions. Increased population and development activities have generated socioeconomic pressures on coral reef and coastal areas, causing increased degradation of resources. The major threats are poison fishing, blast fishing, coral mining, over fishing, and sedimentation. Coastal pollution is another problem with domestic and industrial wastes as the most serious land based pollutants. Economic consideration is an important driving force for the degradation of the reef ecosystem. Poverty is a crucial issue in coastal areas. Patron-client relationships are common in coastal villages. Greediness is also an important reason for the destructive patterns of the resources, usually practiced by a small group of people who have capital such as private businessmen, traders and middlemen. Private fishing businessmen have become more powerful, replacing the traditional fishermen’s position. Consequently, the traditional fishermen have become inferior, which often makes them frustrated because they are unable to compete with the commercial fishermen who usually come from outside their area. Reef resources are potential assets for Indonesia, both in productive sectors, especially in fishery and tourism, and ecological protection. About US$15,000 worth of coastal products can be produced from one kilometer of healthy reef per year while from coastal based tourism, the value varies between US$3,000 per km2 in low and about US$500,000 per km2 in high potential tourist areas. The high economic potentials, however, are offset by social costs due to the degradation of the reefs. The social cost of explosive fishing is very high, more than 50 times higher than its benefits. While coral mining produces about US$121,000 per km2 of the reefs, the net losses to society are valued at US$93,600 in fisheries and US$12,000-260,000 in coastal protection. The analysis indirectly suggests the urgent need to reduce threats in order to limit further damage and in order to achieve sustainable use of the resources. So far, the government efforts to reduce the degradation of reef resources are still limited. The lack of government actions mainly stem from the absence of a national coastal development framework. Many sectors claim coastal resources as their assets. Each sector has responsibility for the development of the coastal areas. Each sector has set up its own priorities and regulations that often overlap and/or contradict one another. The situation often becomes exacerbated due to the implementation of Law no.22, 1999 where authority over coastal areas is now decentralized to the regional levels except for marine national parks. COREMAP (Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program) is the national program that has used the integrated approach, involving instrumental stakeholders including relevant government sectors, universities, NGOs, private business enterprises and, more importantly, coastal societies. The main goal of COREMAP is the sustainable use of the coral reef ecosystem for increasing the Indonesian people’s welfare. For achieving this goal, the Indonesian government, through the national COREMAP Agency, has prepared a program that is designed to be a viable national framework. Using this national framework and with assistance from the national agency and relevant experts, the provincial and regional governments in collaboration with other local instrumental stakeholders design their own plans and programs suited to their specific needs and priorities. COREMAP is based on a combination of two development approaches, top-down and bottom-up, with the main focus on the community-based management. The focus on community mainly stems from learning experiences from the failure of the top-down approach to sustain government projects without participation of local societies. With the bottom-up approach, coastal communities, as the prime stakeholders, have been involved since the beginning of the program, such as identifying problems, needs and potential solutions. For this purpose, the government provides strong support by empowering the coastal villages, including increasing their awareness through communication, information and education methods, improving their skills through training and providing alternative income generation. The government also has developed a legal framework of the nation that contains legislation for managing and controlling the utilization of coral reefs, and laws and regulations protecting the resources from destructive practices and other environmental threats.

Choosing tropical portunid species for culture, domestication and stock enhancement in the Indo-Pacific

Williams, M.J., Primavera, J.H., 2001. Asian Fisheries Science 14, 121-142
Large and long-term investments in research, development and technology verification are required for the successful culture, domestication and coastal stock enhancement of any species, including crabs. As more species options are sought for culture, the choice of candidate species could be guided by ex-ante assessments to help identify suitable species and anticipate future constraints and opportunities. Focusing on tropical Indo-West Pacific Portunidae, we propose multiple criteria for domestication and stock enhancement that include life cycle, diet and feed conversion efficiency, behavior, disease resistance, growth rate, marketability, farming systems, profitability and environmental impact. The chief candidate species (four species of Scylla, Portunus pelagicus, P. sanguinolentus, and Charybdis feriatus) are considered against the criteria. Experience in the stock enhancement of P. trituberculatus, a subtropical portunid, is reviewed. We conclude that full domestication will not occur in the next 5 to 10 years and that the main constraints to be overcome are the aggressive behavior of the crabs, their carnivorous diet and competition for suitable coastal farm sites. We also recommend considering the tropical Portunus and Charybdis species examined here as additional or alternative options to the Scylla species. Stock enhancement may be feasible in some locations, provided suitable fisheries management and industry institutions are created.

Delineating the Coral Triangle, its ecoregions and functional seascapes

Green, A., Mous, P., 2004. Report on an expert workshop, held at the Southeast Asia Center for Marine Protected Areas, Bali, Indonesia (April 30 - May 2, 2003), The Nature Conservancy Coral Triangle Center, Sanur, Indonesia
The world’s center of marine biodiversity is known to zoogeographers as the Indo-Australian Archipelago, the East Indian Triangle (Briggs 1999, Allen 2000) or, more recently, as the Coral Triangle (Allen 2000). In broad geographical terms, the Coral Triangle was believed to be located within an area centered around Eastern Indonesia, encompassing four countries (Indonesia, Australia, Philippines and Papua New Guinea: Hoeksema & Putra 2000). The Coral Triangle includes a major part of Southeast Asia’s most pristine coral reefs, which are severely threatened by human activities. The most pervasive threats are over-fishing, threatening 64% of Southeast Asia’s reefs, and destructive fishing practices, threatening two thirds of the reefs in the Philippines, Malaysia, and Taiwan, and 50% of the reefs in Indonesia. Sedimentation and pollution associated with coastal development and changes in land use put 37% of Southeast Asia’s reefs at risk (Burke, Selig & Spalding 2002). The biodiversity and threatened status of the coral triangle induced The Nature Conservancy to take conservation action at a number of Southeast Asian and Pacific sites during the nineties. The most comprehensive site-based marine conservation program is at Komodo National Park (East Indonesia), where The Nature Conservancy abated destructive fishing practices by supporting the Park authority with Park planning and financing, awareness, surveillance, and alternative livelihood projects.
Whereas site-based conservation management can address local threats such as over-fishing, destructive fishing practices and issues related to coastal development, it cannot address a ajor large-scale threat that has become apparent in the last decade : an increase in coral bleaching due to climate change. In 1998, an El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event aused unusually warm water temperatures, which led to mass coral bleaching of unprecedented proportions on coral reefs world wide, and devastating losses of live coral in some parts of the world. These warm water events are expected to occur with greater frequency and intensity in the coming decades, leading to an increase in the frequency and severity of mass coral bleaching events (Hughes et al 2003). Mass bleaching calls for immediate deployment of measures that mitigate impacts at a larger scale. The Nature Conservancy’s marine conservation program has addressed this challenge by changing the way in which we design and implement Marine Protected Areas to maximize the chances that reefs will survive climate change. In the marine environment, where many species including corals have a planktonic phase in their life cycle, sites are interconnected through ocean currents and larval dispersal. Therefore, it is important that reefs that rely on each other for larval recruitment are protected in networks of MPAs. If well designed, networks of Marine Protected Areas are more resilient to leaching than individual sites.

Sea cucumber fisheries: a manager's toolbox

Friedman K., Purcell S., Bell J. and Hair C., 2008. ACIAR Monograph No. 135, ACIAR, Canberra, Australia
The way people fish for sea cucumbers is changing rapidly. Traditional methods for catching sea cucumbers, such as gleaning on reefs at low tide or diving in shallow waters, are being replaced by the use of larger boats, diving equipment and bottom dredges. These changes allow fishers to collect most of these slow-moving animals easily, even in remote places and deep-water locations, causing widespread over-fishing of sea cucumbers. Over-fishing is also being driven by the increasing need for cash in rural areas of the Pacific. Bêche-de-mer, produced by boiling, drying and smoking sea cucumbers, is a valuable commodity, so there are strong incentives for villagers to catch and sell sea cucumbers for income to meet their needs. Sea cucumbers are also prone to over-fishing because of their biology. Many species grow slowly and, due to natural variability, populations are likely to have both good and poor breeding years. This means that it can take a long time for stocks to be replenished after heavy fishing. The widespread over-exploitation of sea cucumbers is leading to a collapse of stocks. Sea cucumbers are sedentary marine invertebrates that shed their eggs and sperm into the water column. When they are over-fished below a certain (threshold) density, they cannot reproduce effectively because the males and females are too far apart for fertilisation to be successful. When this happens to any species of sea cucumber, it will eventually disappear from an area, taking the livelihoods of coastal villagers with it. This toolbox is designed to help managers and fishers check the ‘health’ of their sea cucumber fishery. It also summarises management measures that can be used to maintain the condition of healthy fisheries and restore those that have been damaged.

Baseline Study on coral reefs in Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), Pangkep Regency

Bayu P., Petrus M., 2008. Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program (COREMAP II), Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI), Jakarta
Information on the condition of coral reef ecosystems with the various benthic components which form them is urgently needed for status assessments. Islands in Pangkep district are generally are dominated by coral reefs, some islands have mangrove and seagrass beds. Aim of this research was to carry out an ecological baseline study in marine protected areas in Pangkep, including Liukkang Kalmas sub-district, including observations in the field of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), condition of coral reefs, reef fishes and megabentos as well as the set-up of permanent transects for future monitoring. The data which was collected will be the basis for monitoring future change in the same location.

Panduan metode Point Intercept Transect (PIT) untuk masyarakat

Anna E.W, Manuputty., Djuwariah., 2009. Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program (COREMAP II), Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia(LIPI), Jakarta ("We are sorry an English translation is not available yet")
Metode PIT, merupakan salah satu metode yang dikembangkan untuk memantau kondisi karang hidup dan biota pendukung lainnya di suatu lokasi terumbu karang dengan cara yang mudah dan dalam waktu yang cepat (Hill & Wilkinson, 2004). Metode ini dapat digunakan di daerah (Kabupaten) yang ingin mengetahui kondisi terumbu karang di daerahnya untuk tujuan pengelolaan. Suatu daerah yang ingin mengelola terumbu karangnya tentu ingin mengetahui terumbu karangnya yang rusak, dan terumbu karangnya yang masih sehat untuk kepentingan pengelolaannya. Metode ini dapat memperkirakan kondisi terumbu karang di daerah berdasarkan persen tutupan karang batu hidup dengan mudah dan cepat. Secara teknis, metode Point Intercept Transect (PIT) adalah cara menghitung persen tutupan (% cover) substrat dasar secara acak, dengan menggunakan tali bertanda di setiap jarak 0,5 meter atau juga dengan pita berskala (roll meter). Di Daerah Perlindungan Laut (DPL) COREMAP II World Bank, data baseline ekologi terumbu karang ditentukan dengan metode Point Intercept Transect (PIT), untuk mengakses kondisi terumbu karang berdasarkan persen tutupan karang batu hidup, yang dapat dilakukan oleh seorang yang bukan ahli karang dengan mudah dan cepat. Metode ini digunakan di DPL oleh tim CRITC–LIPI, kemudian disosialisasikan ke CRITC daerah, karena untuk pemantauan kondisi terumbu karang di DPL selanjutnya akan dilakukan oleh tim CRITC daerah yang bersangkutan. Metode PIT digunakan untuk menentukan komunitas bentos sesil (biota yang hidup di dasar atau melekat di dasar perairan) di terumbu karang berdasarkan bentuk pertumbuhan dalam satuan persen, dengan jalan mencatat jumlah biota bentik yang ada pada masing-masing titik di sepanjang garis transek (25m). Kategori biota dan substrat yang dicatat dapat dilihat dalam Tabel 1. Metode PIT ditetapkan dan digunakan untuk memonitor kondisi terumbu karang secara detail dengan meletakkan transek permanen di lokasi Daerah Perlindungan Laut (DPL). Pemilihan lokasi transek permanen berdasarkan keterwakilan dalam suatu luasan DPL sebagai contoh, bila luas area DPL < 200 m2, dapat dibuat satu transek, bila luasnya 300 m2, dibuat 2 transek. Posisi garis transek sejajar dengan garis pantai. Posisi geografi masing-masing lokasi transek harus ditentukan dengan GPS.

Study on cyanide at coral reef community

Giyanto., 2003. Coral Reef Information and Training Center (CRITC Team), Jakarta
Cyanide is used by the fishers to catch ornamental and consumption fishes which have high economic value, such as Cromileptes, Plectropomus and Epinephelus known locally as kerapu . It is also used to catch the Napoleon wrasse or Cheilinus undulatus which fetch a fantastically high price. Market demand for live consumption fish is significantly increasing, particularly from Singapore, Taiwan and Hongkong. The side effect of catching ornamental and live consumption fishes with cyanide is the degradation of coral reefs. Coral degradation is not solely caused by chemical reaction of the cyanide but also due to direct physical destruction. Usually , fisherman will first swim after the target fish until it hides itself amongst the corals. Then he sprays the fish in the hiding place with the cyanide solution. When the fish get intoxicated, it may comes out from its hiding place or remains inside. To get into the fish out of the hiding place, the fisherman will break the surrounding corals apart, leaving behind degraded coral rubbles. As a matter of fact, coral damage due to the use of cyanide is until now still a big question mark. Perhaps it is because the rate of damage due to the use of cyanide is quite low as compared with the rate of natural growth of the corals. It is also likely that under natural condition cyanide is easily dissolved in the sea water and then swept away by the sea current (Jones and Steven, 1997). Laboratory experiment shows that corals treated with various doses of cyanide will undergo bleaching and eventually die. Bleaching of corals is a reflection of a situation where symbiotic zooxanthellae have left the coral tissue because they fail to carry out photosynthetic processes (Jones and Hoegh-Gulberg, 1999). However, there is no solid proof that the toxicity of cyanide seriously degrades the corals (Jones et al. 1999). The effect of cyanide in degrading reef corals seems not so serious as previously believed. As a matter of fact the real issue concerning the use of cyanide relates to possible overexploitation. (Erdmann and Pet-Soede, 1999). Coral degradation due to cyanide fishing is significantly smaller compared to that caused by blast fishing (McManus et al. 1997). Cyanide is a carbon-nitrogenic chemical compound which is capable of combining with organic as well as inorganic compounds. In mining, cyanide is usually used to extract gold from the rock. Hydrogen cyanide is used as an insecticide, for instance in the fumigation of insect infested ships and dwellings. Cyanide salts (especially sodium and potassium) are used as pigments, insecticides, and in a number of industries, such as metallurgy (electroplating, case hardening, gold and silver extraction), photography, agriculture (insecticide, soil sterilization), and in the leather-making industry (dehairing hides). Cyanide exists in many different forms, including gaseous, liquid, and solid. It may be combined with salts (eg, sodium, calcium, potassium), metals (cobalt, zinc, gold, mercury), and halides (chloride, fluoride, iodide, bromide), or with organic acids to form nitriles (ATSDR, 1997). Most cyanide in aquatic systems will form hydrogen cyanide and evaporates.

Kegiatan penangkapan ikan tidak ramah lingkungan (Pitral) di Kepulauan Spermonde, Sulawesi Selatan

Muhammad, Z.M., 2003. Destructive Fishing Watch Indonesia ("We are sorry an English translation is not available yet")
Penangkapan ikan tidak ramah lingkungan (PITRaL) merupakan suatu aktivitas penangkapan ikan yang cenderung eksploratif dan tidak memperhatikan kaidah-kaidah konservasi. Alat PITRaL yang sering digunakan adalah bahan peledak (bom), racun sianida (bius), trawl (masih diperdebatkan), bubu tindis da muroami. Akan tetapi yang dianggap paling signifikan dalam perusakan terumbu karang adalah PITRaL dengan bom dan racun. Praktek PITRaL dengan bom dan racun selain merusak ekosistem terumbu karang juga telah menimbulkan kerugian ekonomi, memicu berbagai perselisihan dan konflik social. Bila keadaan ini dibiarkan terus maka diperkirakan dalam waktu 15 tahun ke depan terumbu karang Indonesia akan habis. Di Propinsi Sulawesi Selatan, penangkapan ikan tidak ramah lingkungan merupakan masalah yang sangat sulit untuk diatasi. Perusakan terumbu karang akibat bom dan bius masih banyak dilakukan. Disinyalir bahwa Kepulauan Spermonde yang terletak di sebelah barat propinsi Sulawesi Selatan merupakan salah satu pusat kegiatan PITRaL. Kepulauan Spermonde pada COREMAP Fase II akan ditetapkan sebagai lokasi target. Oleh karena itu COREMAP-LIPI telah melakukan baseline studi mengenai PITRaL dengan memberi kepercayaan kepada Destructive Fishing Watch (DFW) Indonesia sebagai pelaksana penelitian. Pengambilan data telah dilakukan di 16 pulau (10 pulau sasaran dan 6 pulau alternative) dan di 6 TPI/PPI. Jumlah responden yang berhasil diwawancarai adalah 300 orang nelayan; 100 orang pelaku pasar di TPI/PPI dan 100 orang stakeholder. Simulasi PITRaL in situ juga telah dilakukan. Hasil penelitian mengungkapkan bahwa 64,88% nelayan adalah pelaku PITRaL. Dari pelaku PITRaL tersebut 68% adalah pengebom, 27% pembius dan 5% pelaku keduanya, mereka dominan dan berdomisili di pulau-pulau dalam kawasan. Lokasi pengeboman dan pembiusan tersebar meluas di seluruh kawasan Spermonde. Intensitas pengeboman cenderung meningkat pada musim barat (Oktober-Maret) sementara intensitas pembiusan relatif tinggi di semua musim. Faktor-faktor pemicu PITRaL seperti desakan ekonomi, tingkat pendidikan dan kesadaran yang rendah, lemahnya penegakan hukum, permintaan pasar yang tinggi, ketersediaan jalur distribusi bahan baku bom dan bius, serta persepsi masyarakat tentang stok ikan yang tinggi menyebabkan aktivitas PITRaL terus berlangsung. Rekomendasi yang dilahirkan dari penelitian ini adalah Sistem MCS Berbasis Darat. Pada system ini seluruh pengawasan PITRaL difokuskan ke darat. Pertama, pada daerah-daerah pemasaran antara lain dengan mengawasi kondisi fisik organisme target. Kedua, pada lokasi penampungan ikan-ikan target. Ketiga, pada lokasi yang merupakan jalur pengadaan bahan PITRaL dan oknum-oknum yang berperan. Keempat, mengawasi sarana operasi penangkapan.

Strategi utama jejaring kawasan konservasi laut

Asisten Direktur Bidang Kebijakan dan Pengembangan MMA/MCA, Program Rehabilitasi dan Pengelolaan Terumbu Karang Tahap II (COREMAP II), Direktorat Jenderal Kelautan Pesisir dan Pulau-Pulau Kecil, Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan, 2006 ("We are sorry an English translation is not available yet")
Indonesia yang merupakan pusat dari segitiga terumbu karang (coral triangle), memiliki keanekaragaman hayati tertinggi di dunia (megabiodiversity). Tingginya keanekaragaman hayati tersebut bukan hanya disebabkan oleh letak geografis yang sangat strategis melainkan juga dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor seperti variasi iklim musiman, arus atau massa air laut yang mempengaruhi massa air dari dua samudra, serta keragaman tipe habitat dan ekosistem yang terdapat di dalamnya. Namun demikian, meningkatnya jumlah penduduk serta faktorfaktor ekonomi lain, menyebabkan tekanan terhadap sumberdaya alam laut dan ekosistemnya semakin meningkat pula. Hal tersebut semakin dipicu oleh kegiatan yang tidak mengacu pada kriteriakriteria pembangunan berwawasan lingkungan serta pemanfaatan sumberdaya alam laut yang berlebihan. Oleh karenanya diperlukan upaya untuk menanggulangi hal tersebut. Salah satu bentuk upaya tersebut adalah perlindungan sumberdaya alam yang dapat dilakukan melalui konservasi dengan cara menyisihkan lokasi-lokasi yang memiliki potensi keanekaragaman jenis biota laut, gejala alam dan keunikan, serta ekosistemnya menjadi Kawasan Konservasi Laut (KKL). KKL tersebut pada dasarnya merupakan gerbang terakhir perlindungan dan pemanfaatan berkelanjutan sumberdaya kelautan dan ekosistemnya. Melalui cara tersebut diharapkan upaya perlindungan secara lestari terhadap sistem penyangga kehidupan, pengawetan sumber plasma nutfah dan ekosistemnya serta pemanfaatan sumberdaya alam laut secara berkelanjutan dapat terwujud. KKL merupakan wilayah perairan laut termasuk pesisir dan pulau-pulau kecil yang mencakup tumbuhan dan hewan di Jejaring Kawasan Konservasi Laut 3 dalamnya, serta/atau termasuk bukti peninggalan sejarah dan sosial budaya di bawahnya, yang dilindungi secara hukum atau cara lain yang efektif baik dengan melindungi seluruh atau sebagian wilayah tersebut (Definisi berdasarkan Komnas Kolaut, 2005). Di daerah tersebut diatur zona-zona untuk mengatur kegiatan yang dapat dan tidak dapat dilakukan, misalnya pelarangan kegiatan seperti penambangan minyak dan gas bumi, perlindungan ikan, biota laut dan ekologinya untuk menjamin perlidungan yang lebih baik. Pada tahun 2010 Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan menargetkan untuk mengembangkan KKL seluas 10 juta ha. Berkaitan dengan target tersebut, Program Rehabilitasi dan Pengelolaan Terumbu Karang (Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Programe/ COREMAP), sedang berupaya untuk mengembangkan KKL di Indonesia salah satunya melalui Kegiatan Penyusunan Strategi Utama Jejaring Kawasan Konservasi Laut yang selanjutnya akan di kembangkan menjadi Strategi Nasional Jejaring Kawasan Konservasi Laut. Strategi Nasional Jejaring Kawasan Konservasi Laut tersebut dituangkan dalam desain rancangan Jejaring KKL yang sangat dibutuhkan untuk menjadi acuan dalam pengembangan KKL dan nantinya diharapkan dapat menjadi payung kebijakan dan strategi pemerataan bagi pusat maupun daerah sesuai dengan perkembangan global kawasan koservasi laut mendukung pengelolaan perikanan yang berkelanjutan.

Panduan monitoring berbasis masyarakat

Program Rehabilitasi dan Pengelolaan Terumbu Karang Tahap II (COREMAP II), 2006 ("We are sorry an English translation is not available yet")
Pengelolaan wilayah pesisir berbasis masyarakat merupakan salah satu implementasi dari pengelolaan wilayah pesisir secara terpadu. Siklus pengelolaan wilayah pesisir secara terpadu terdiri dari lima tahap yaitu: Identifikasi isu-isu pengelolaan sumberdaya wilayah pesisir, Persiapan atau perencanaan program, Adopsi program dan pendanaan, Pelaksanaan program, Monitoring dan evaluasi. Tahapan yang ke lima berupa monitoring dan evaluasi dilakukan dalam rangka untuk menilai kinerja implementasi program sehingga dapat dilakukan evaluasi untuk perbaikan siklus pengelolaan pesisir berikutnya. Dalam sebuah pengelolaan berbasis masyarakat maka diperlukan monitoring yang juga dilakukan oleh masyarakat itu sendiri sehingga masyarakat mendapat pembelajaran tentang pengelolaan yang mereka lakukan.Monitoring dapat dilakukan terhadap kinerja pengelolaan ataupun dampak atau hasil dari pengelolaan tersebut. Tujuan pembuatan buku panduan monitoring berbasis masyarakat adalah: Memberikan pengetahuan kepada masyarakat tentang pentingnya kegiatan pemantauan pada setiap program pembangunan, Mengukur kinerja dan manfaat program pembangunan, Menyediakan panduan praktis kepada masyarakat untuk pemantauan sumberdaya laut di wilayah mereka.

Panduan penyusunan rencana pengelolaan kawasan konservasi laut daerah

Agus, D., Suraji, Budi, W., Wawan, K., Budiono, M., (Tim Asisten Direktur Bidang Kebijakan dan Pengembangan MMA/MCA COREMAP II) ("We are sorry an English translation is not available yet')
Keanekaragaman hayati di wilayah pesisir dan laut meliputi keanekaragaman hayati dan nilai manfaatnya baik secara ekonomis, sosial, budaya, dan estetika perlu memperoleh perhatian perhatian serius agar strategi pengelolaan keanekaragaman hayati pesisir dan laut sesuai dengan prinsip-prinsip pembangunan berkelanjutan. Pengembangan dan pengelolaan Kawasan konservasi perairan merupakan bagian dari upaya pengelolaan atau konservasi ekosistem. Apabila ditinjau berdasarkan tipe ekosistem yang dimiliki, kawasan konservasi perairan dapat meliputi : kawasan konservasi perairan air tawar, perairan payau atau perairan laut. (KKL). Dalam pengembangannya, kawasan konservasi perairan di wilayah laut yang dikembangkan oleh pemerintah daerah sering disebut sebagai Kawasan Konservasi Laut Daerah (KKLD). Secara umum, tujuan dari rencana Pengelolaan KKLD adalah untuk konservasi habitat dan proses-proses ekologi, dan perlindungan nilai sumberdaya sehingga kegiatan perikanan, pariwisata dan penelitian, pendidikan dapat dilaksanakan secara berkelanjutan. Segenap tujuan dapat diselesaikan melalui pengelolaan program yang aktif dan tepat guna yang mengarah kepada pemanfaatan sumberdaya hayati di wilayah pesisir dan laut yang berkelanjutan. Rencana Pengelolaan suatu KKLD merupakan dokumen kerja yang dapat dimutakhirkan (update) secara periodik. Karena kompleksnya pengelolaan kawasan dan juga pengelolaan bersifat 'site specific', maka kami berupaya mengembangkan model generik yang disajikan dalam buku pedoman ini walaupun kami menyadari bahwa model ini bukan merupakan resep yang mujarab untuk semua lokasi/wilayah. Buku ini merupakan panduan umum yang dapat dijadikan sebagai salah satu acuan dalam penyusunan rencana pengelolaan Kawasan Konservasi Laut Daerah (KKLD), khususnya di lokasi COREMAP II - ADB.

BME ekologi di Kabupaten Selayar

Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program (COREMAP II), Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI), 2007. Jakarta ("We are sorry an English translation is not available yet')
Kabupaten Selayar adalah salah satu lokasi baru COREMAP yang secara administratif masuk ke dalam Provinsi Sulawesi Selatan. Kabupaten ini terletak di tengah lautan di ujung selatan Provinsi Sulawesi Selatan dan terdiri dari beberapa gugus kepulauan. Dengan kondisi demikian Pemerintah setem-pat menetapkan visinya sebagai “Kabupaten Maritim”, dengan pariwisata dan perikanan sebagai sektor terpenting untuk dikembangkan. Namun masyarakatnya masih berbudaya agraris, sehingga diperlukan kerja keras untuk mengubah kebiasaan sehari-hari dari mengolah tanah menjadi mengolah dan mengarungi lautan sebagai lahan garapan baru. Potensi sumberdaya laut yang tinggi, yang bila tidak dikelola dengan baik, tentu akan memberikan keuntungan sesaat saja. Eksplorasi sumberdaya laut yang tidak terkendali dapat membawa pengaruh negatif pada lingkungan perairan Kabupaten Selayar. Studi baseline ekologi terumbu karang telah dilakukan pada tahun 2006. Kegiatan tahun 2007 adalah kegiatan pemantauan terhadap kesehatan terumbu karang di lokasi transek permanen yang telah ditetapkan pada waktu studi baseline. Diharapkan agar data yang ter-kumpul dapat dipakai oleh pemangku kepen-tingan dalam mengelola ekosistem terumbu karang secara lestari dan hasil pemantauan digunakan sebagai pembanding untuk bahan evaluasi keberhasilan COREMAP. Penelitian dilakukan di lokasi kegiatan COREMAP Fase II di wilayah Kabupaten Selayar, yaitu di sepanjang pantai bagian barat P. Selayar (dari ujung utara hingga selatan) dan P. Pasimasunggu (Kec. Tanahjampea). Penelitian dilakukan pada bulan November 2007 dengan melibatkan staf CRITC (Coral Reef Information and Training Centre) Jakarta dibantu oleh para peneliti CRITC Makassar dan Kabupaten Selayar. Tujuan penelitian adalah untuk melihat perubahan dari kondisi terumbu karang yang terjadi di lokasi transek permanen, baik tutupan karangnya, kelimpahan megabentos, maupun ikan karangnya.

BME ekologi di Kabupaten Pangkajene Kepulauan (Pangkep)

Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program (COREMAP II), Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI), 2007. Jakarta ("We are sorry an English translation is not available yet')
Kabupaten Pangkajene Kepulauan (Pang-kep) terletak di Selat Makassar, Provinsi Sulawesi Selatan. Luas wilayahnya sekitar 79572,3 ha, terdiri dari daratan utama seluas 79083,3 ha dan rangkaian kepulauan sekitar 489 ha. Kabupaten ini memiliki pulau-pulau kecil yang tersebar dari utara ke selatan sepanjang Selat Makassar. Jum-lah kecamatannya sembilan, tiga di antara-nya masuk wilayah kerja COREMAP, yaitu kecamatan-kecamatan Liukkang Tupabbiring, Liukkang Tangaya, dan Liukkang Kalmas. Tujuan penelitian adalah untuk memonitor perubahan dari kondisi terumbu karang serta biota hidup di dalamnya. Data yang diperoleh diharapkan dapat berguna sebagai bahan pertimbangan bagi para pemegang kepentingan dalam mengelola ekosistem terumbu karang secara lestari. Data dasar dan data pemantauan dapat dijadikan bahan evaluasi bagi keberhasilan COREMAP. Hasil pemantauan menunjukkan bahwa tidak terjadi perubahan yang nyata dari persentase tutupan karang hidup (2006 = 34,68%; 2007 = 30,42%). Demikian juga halnya dengan megabentos, yang tidak berubah secara nyata antara tahun 2006 dan 2007. Jumlah individu ikan karang mengalami sedikit peningkatan, yaitu dari 559 menjadi 600 individu per transek. Namun kenaikan ini tidak signifikan.

Baseline studi terumbu karang di Lokasi Daerah Perlindungan Laut (DPL) Kabupaten Selayar

Jemmy, S., Johan, P., Coral Reef Rehabilitation and management program (COREMAP II), Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI), 2008. Jakarta ('We are sorry an English translation is not available yet")
Banyak kegiatan yang dilakukan untuk mengamati kondisi karang dan ekosistem terumbu karang, perkembangan yang terjadi, apakah itu ke arah yang lebih baik ataupun semakin buruk. Metode-metode pemantauan telah dilakukan dan di ujicobakan dalam kegiatan studi baseline maupun monitoring terumbu karang di lokasi-lokasi COREMAP. Metode-metode yang dipakai disesuaikan dengan tujuan penelitian yang ingin dicapai. Metode-metode tersebut, masing-masing mempunyai kekurangan maupun kelebihan. Metode “Rapid Reef Resources Inventory” (RRI), dapat dipakai untuk pemantauan suatu area terumbu karang yang luas dalam waktu yang singkat, namun kekurangannya terletak pada daya visualisasi sipengamat. Metode pemantauan dengan “Line Intercept Transect” dianggap terlalu ilmiah, dan kurang tepat untuk menjawab perubahan yang terjadi di suatu area terumbu karang yang luas karena hanya terpatok pada lokasi transek permanen saja. Namun untuk menjawab keanekaragaman karang, metode ini lebih cocok. Untuk keperluan manajemen terumbu karang, dan untuk menjawab naik maupun turunnya persentase tutupan ataupun kehadiran karang hidup, yang dipantau di suatu lokasi yang luas dalam waktu yang singkat digunakan metode “Point Intercept Transect” (PIT). Metode ini diujicobakan di lokasi-lokasi konservasi yang dipatok oleh masyarakat desa setempat, yaitu di lokasi daerah perlindungan laut (DPL). Metode ini lebih sederhana tapi terukur, karena dapat menghihasilkan persentase tutupan kehadiran karang hidup dalam waktu yang singkat dan mencakup area yang luas. Diharapkan masyarakat setempat yang diwakili oleh staf CRITC daerah dapat melakukan sendiri monitoring kondisi terumbu karang di masing-masing lokasi DPL, yang sudah diawali dengan studi baseline di lokasi yang sama oleh staf CRITC pusat. Tujuan penelitian ini yaitu untuk melakukan studi baseline ekologi di lokasi Daerah Perlindungan Laut (DPL), yang meliputi pengamatan di bidang Sistem Informasi Geografis (SIG), kondisi karang, ikan karang dan megabentos membuat plot transek permanen untuk keperluan pemantauan diwaktu mendatang. Data yang dikumpulkan dipakai sebagai data dasar, sebagai acuan untuk pemantauan di lokasi yang sama pada waktu mendatang.

CRTR Connectivity handbook

P.F. Sale, H. Van Lavieren, M.C. Ablan Lagman, J. Atema, M. Butler, C. Fauvelot, J.D. Hogan, G.P. Jones, K.C. Lindeman, C.B. Paris, R. Steneck and H.L. Stewart. 2010. Preserving Reef Connectivity: A Handbook for Marine Protected Area Managers. Connectivity Working Group, Coral Reef Targeted Research & Capacity Building for Management Program, UNU-INWEH.
Preserving Reef Connectivity: A Handbook for Marine Protected Area Managers aims to help managers of coastal areas, in particular those of coastal marine protected areas (MPAs), understand and apply the concept of connectivity in their work. Connectivity issues relate to the movement in marine environments of water – and with it sediments, nutrients and pollutants – and of marine organisms. This makes it an important element to consider when contemplating the effective design of MPAs and MPA networks and most other aspects of coastal management.

Reef rehabilitating manual

Edwards, A.J. (ed.) (2010). Reef Rehabilitation Manual. Coral Reef Targeted Research & Capacity Building for Management Program: St Lucia, Australia. ii + 166 pp
This manual captures the learning’s of worldwide research into reef rehabilitation and seeks to reduce the proportion of reef rehabilitation projects that fail. It provides detailed hands-on advice, based on lessons-learnt from previous experience, on how to carry out coral reef rehabilitation in a responsible and cost-effective manner.

Reef restoration concepts and guidelines: making senssible management choices in the face of uncertainty

A. J. Edwards, E.D. Gomez. 2007. Reef Restoration Concepts & Guidelines: Making sensible management choices in the face of uncertainty. The Coral Reef Targeted Research & Capacity Building for Management Program, Australia
New guidelines from the CRTR Program provide coastal managers, decision-makers, technical advisors and others with an overview of research exploring successful and unsuccessful coral reef restoration approaches from around the world.

The science of no-take fishery reserves: a guide for manajers

Van Lavieren, Hanneke, 2009. The science of No-take Fishery Reserves. A guide for managers. UNU-INWEH, CRTR Brochure
This resource examines the science underlying the use of no-take fishery reserves as a management tool for coastal fisheries, with a focus on connectivity. It considers benefits of NTRs, optimal size, knowledge gaps and socio-economic factors.

Reefs at Risk Revisited

Burke, L., Reytar, K., Spalding, M., Perry, A., 2011. Reefs at Risk Revisited, World Resources Institute, Washington DC, USA
Under the Reefs at Risk Revisited project, WRI and its partners have developed a new, detailed assessment of the status of and threats to the world’s coral reefs. This information is intended to raise awareness about the location and severity of threats to coral reefs.These results can also catalyze opportunities for changes in policy and practice that could safeguard coral reefs and the benefits they provide to people for future generations. Reefs at Risk Revisited is a high-resolution update of the original global analysis, Reefs at Risk: A Map-Based Indicator of Threats to the World’s Coral Reefs. Reefs at Risk Revisited uses a global map of coral reefs at 500-m resolution, which is 64 times more detailed than the 4-km resolution map used in the 1998 analysis, and benefits from improvements in many global data sets used to evaluate threats to reefs (most threat data are at 1 km resolution, which is 16 times more detailed than those used in the 1998 analysis).

Coral disease-guidelines for asssessment, monitoring and management (2008)

L.J. Raymundo, C.S. Couch, C.D. harvell. 2008. Coral disease-guidelines for assessment, monitoring and management. Coral Reef Targeted Research and Capacity Building for Management Program, Melbourne, Australia

Designed for reef managers by international experts on coral disease, the Handbook outlines procedures for describing indicators, measuring impacts, monitoring outbreaks, assessing causes, and managing reefs to minimize losses due to disease. This handbook helps managers not only to document and manage disease on their reefs, but also enables them to contribute to our scientific understanding of this grave and increasing threat.

Underwater cards for assessing coral health on Indo-Pacifiic reefs (2008)

R. Beeden, B.L. Willis, L.J. Raymundo, C.A Page, E. Weil. Underwater cards for assessing coral health on Indo-Pacific reefs, Coral Reef Targeted Reseach & Capacity Building for Management Program, Australia

These Underwater Cards for assessing the health of coral reefs have been designed so that scientific, professional and recreational divers can all assist with gathering information on the occurrence of coral reef diseases in the Indo-Pacific. These cards will assist in the identification and monitoring of diseases in Indo-Pacific corals and other reef organisms.

A short review of precautionary reference points and some proposals for their use in data-poor situations

Caddy, J., 1998. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No 379, FAO, Rome, Italy
The paper briefly summarizes the recent development and use of reference points for fisheries management and how they are currently being used to contribute to precautionary fisheries management. This implies the incorporation of reference points into 'Harvest Control Laws', which form the basis for management action but need to be reconciled through discussion and negotiation between managers and fishers and the fishing industry, since the 'risk' that a particular fishing strategy will be precautionary depends on the overall performance of the fishery as a system and not just on the precision of the reference point itself. Limit Reference Points are only one component of a precautionary management system; precision in formulating reference points as part of a fisheries control, law will be ineffective in the absence of either industry's agreement to act when the limit reference points are approached or exceeded or prompt and effective surveillance to detect infringements. A short review of reference points of actual or potential value will mainly look at those that could be of particular use for developing countries' fisheries and shellfish resources, or oceanic resources such as tuna, where lack of data on age structure and recruitment makes application of some of the conventional approaches used in north-boreal shelf fisheries uncertain. One suggestion that will be made is to consider how multiple reference points might be used based on different criteria. The North Atlantic area is taken as an example of an area where considerable progress has already been made in defining reference points, but emphasis within the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) and the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) has largely been on defining RPs dependent on the existence of time series of age-structured data, a data-rich situation unlikely to currently apply to many tuna stocks and tropical fisheries. Where data is scarce, precaution is even more necessary, but reference points may have to be partly empirical, and emphasis is placed on describing a number of options to be explored further through simulation and, later, practical trials. Attention is given to different ways in which they could be combined in control laws within a fisheries management system.

Standard Operating Procedures for repeated measures of process and state variables of coral reef

R.Van Woesik, J. Gilner, A.J Hooten. 2009. Standard Operating Procedures for repeated measurees of process and state variable of coral reef environments. Research and Capacity Building for Management Program, Florida Institute of Technology

The CRTR Program has developed a set of Standard Operating Procedures with which to collect state and process variables at the various habitats in the vicinity of each CoE and other satellite locations. These methods will allow useful comparisons among localities, and are flexible enough to allow for different analytical approaches environments.

Mass diving tourism - a new dimension calls for new management approaches

van Treeck, P., Schuhmacher, H., 1998. Marine Pollution Bulletin 37, 499-504

Diving has become a booming branch of the tourism business. The economies of many countries with reef-lined coasts depend on high numbers of tourist divers; the resultant degradation of reefs by mechanical damage is accepted due to the short-term gain from the tourism business. Many activities of recreational diving do not particularly require coral reefs ± any varied three-dimensional structure (e.g. a wreck) may be sufficiently attractive. The conflict between the needs of nature conservation and the economic interests of diving tourism can be mitigated by the formation of artificial underwater attractions as reef substitutes. Based on experiments in the northern Red Sea, we propose to deposit calcium minerals from the seawater in situ by electrolysis on a template of any desired shape. After transplantation of living coral fragments, a diverse community will develop. With this method different modules can be designed and formed on the seabed which can serve di.erent needs such as diver training, environmental education and recreation as well as reef rehabilitation. By a combination of such modules, a recreational underwater park can be formed well suited to function as a DAD (diver aggregation device) and therefore, divert diver pressure from the natural reef.