Mariculture
Lovatelli, A., Phillips, M.J., Arthur, J.R., Yamamoto, K., (eds.), 2008. FAO/NACA Regional Workshop 7–11 March 2006, Guangzhou, China. FAO Fisheries Proceedings, FAO, Rome, Italy The FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department in collaboration with the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (NACA) organized the regional workshop entitled “The Future of Mariculture: a Regional Approach for Responsible Development in the Asia-Pacific Region” from 7 to 11 March 2006. The workshop, held in Guangzhou, China, was conducted in collaboration with the Bureau of Fisheries of the People’s Republic of China and the Guangdong Ocean and Fisheries Administration. Fifty-one participants from governments, business, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), universities and regional and international organizations from maricultureproducing countries around the Asia-Pacific region attended the workshop. The workshop was convened in response to requests from FAO and NACA members to identify key trends and issues affecting mariculture growth in the Asia-Pacific region and to strengthen regional collaboration for future responsible development of mariculture. China’s hosting of the workshop recognizes the status of China as the leading mariculture-producing country in the world and a major market for mariculture products from around the Asia-Pacific region. The workshop was organized in complementary sessions. The first consisted of a series of presentations and discussions on country trends and thematic reviews on selected key issues. The second continued with three working groups focusing on important topics, namely: 1) Market, Demand and Trade; 2) Livelihoods, Producer Organizations, Technology Transfer and Communications; and 3) Mariculture Species and Systems. The third session comprised a “farmer dialogue” and a “trader and marketing dialogue”. The farmer dialogue was conducted at a large mariculture farming area near Guangzhou, while the trader and marketing dialogue was conducted at the largest live-seafood market in Asia. These dialogues yielded valuable insights and recommendations from farmers and traders. The final plenary session brought together the working group findings and identified opportunities for regional collaborative action. The workshop participants proposed the establishment of a regional “Asia-Pacific Mariculture Cooperation” initiative to support the development of sustainable mariculture in the Asia-Pacific region. The initiative will facilitate cooperation among the countries of the region by promoting responsible mariculture farming technologies, capacity-building, market access and effective transfer of knowledge. The platform for the initiative would be the “Asia-Pacific Marine Finfish Aquaculture Network”, which is already promoting cooperation in marine fish farming around the region and has been widely seen as a successful programme. FAO and NACA were requested to facilitate and support the development of this new mariculture initiative.
Aquaculture in the southeast Asian region has been growing steadily over the last few decades, requiring more space to accommodate it. The search for additional areas to expand the aquaculture industry as a whole and the identification of new farming species of commercial value to satisfy the growing local and export markets are pushing the sector in some countries to expand its activities in the sea, including further offshore where more space is available and where, to a lesser extent, competition is currently not so intense. During the latest session of the FAO Committee on Fisheries (COFI) and the Sub-Committee on Aquaculture (COFI-SCA), members requested that FAO look into issues related to the sustainable development of coastal aquaculture and in particular mariculture.
Source: Agnet 
Aquaculture has an important role in the development of many national economies and plays a key role in rural development in Asia-Pacific including Indonesia. With the expansion of aquaculture products, there is a growing concern over the impacts of aquaculture on environmental sustainability and also over the requirements on quality and food safety by consumers and regulators. For this reason, there is a need to improve aquaculture technology and management system in Indonesia to address the need for eco-friendly production process and food safety concerns for the sustainability of national aquaculture. The Indonesian Fisheries Act No 31 (2004) mentioned among others that the Indonesian Fisheries Management should be done for job opportunity, and for fisher, farmer and related community welfare, and also for fisheries resources and environmental sustainability. In addition, it is also mentioned that the product from both captured and aquaculture fisheries should meet quality standard and product safety. The most critical factors to achieve sustainable aquaculture in Indonesia are availability of good quality seed, good practice in growing-out system, aquaculture environments, fish health management, quality of product and marketing. This reviews Indonesian aquaculture related with sustainable practices and management schemes toward preserving the aquaculture environment, meeting food safety requirements for aquaculture products, and achieving product quality and safety.
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2004. CBD Technial Series No. 12, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Montreal, Canada 
The Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Mariculture was established by the Conference of the Parties in adopting the programme of work on marine and coastal biological diversity at its fourth meeting (decision IV/5, annex). The Expert Group was established to assist the Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) in its work on the topic of mariculture. The terms of reference instructed the Expert Group to:
(a) Evaluate the current state of scientific and technological knowledge on the effects of mariculture on marine and coastal biodiversity;
(b) Provide guidance on criteria, methods, techniques and best practices that avoid the adverse effects of mariculture, and also subsequent stock enhancement, on marine and coastal biological diversity and enhance the positive effects of mariculture on marine and coastal productivity. In evaluating the current state of knowledge on the effects of mariculture on marine and coastal biodiversity, the group identified the main mariculture species and methods, and the biodiversity effects of those methods (Chapter 2). The group agreed that all forms of mariculture affect biodiversity at the genetic, species and ecosystem level, but that under certain circumstances mariculture could also enhance biodiversity locally (Chapter 4). The main effects include habitat degradation, disruption of trophic systems, depletion of natural seedstock, transmission of diseases, and reduction of genetic variability. The biodiversity-effects of pollutantssuch as chemicals and drugs - are not very well studied, though are generally assumed to be negative. There are many available methods and techniques for avoiding the adverse effects of mariculture on biodiversity, and they are summarized in Chapter 3 of this document. They include, most importantly, proper site selection, as well as optimal management including proper feeding. Other mitigation measures include culturing different species together (polyculture), and the use of enclosed, and especially re-circulating, systems. Many of the other impacts can be avoided with better management practices and other technological improvements. A number of aquaculture-specific international and regional principles, standards and certification processes exist, and are described in Chapter 5 of this document.
World Bank, 2006. Report No. 36622-GLB, World Bank, Washington DC, USA Harnessing the contribution of aquaculture to economic development, including poverty alleviation and wealth creation, to employment and to food security and trade, particularly for least developed countries (LDCs) Building environmentally sustainable aquaculture, including the role of aquaculture in the broader suite of environmental management measures Creating the enabling conditions for sustainable aquaculture, including the governance, policy, and regulatory frameworks, and identifying the roles of the public and private sectors Developing and transferring human and institutional capacity in governance, technologies, and business models with special reference to the application of lessons from Asia to Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America.
More than half a decade ahead of these projections, aquaculture production has already reached 45 million tons, providing more than 40 percent of the global food fish supply. As production from capture fisheries stagnates, aquaculture is changing the face of our waters. The objectives of the study are to inform and provide guidance on sustainable aquaculture to decision makers in the international development community and in client countries of international finance institutions. The study focuses on several critical issues and challenges:
Soto, D., Aguilar-Manjarrez, J., Hishamunda, N., 2007. FAO Aquaculture Newsletter No. 37, FAO, Rome, Italy 
Aquaculture growth worldwide involves the expansion of cultivated areas, a higher density of aquaculture installations and farmed individuals and greater use of feed resources produced outside of the immediate culture area. Such evolution of the sector could carry negative impacts on the environment and on portions of the society when unregulated and badly managed. In response to the explicit request of the Third Session of the Committee of Fisheries (COFI) Sub-Committee on Aquaculture to improve the management and enhance the socio-economic impacts of aquaculture, the Aquaculture Management and Conservation Service (FIMA) of the FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department initiated in 2006 an effort to look into the development and application of the ecosystem approach to aquaculture. This activity is funded under a Japanese Trust Fund Project (Towards Sustainable Aquaculture: Selected Issues and Guidelines) and conducted in collaboration with the FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Development and Planning Service (FIEP).
Several activities have taken place to support sustainable aquaculture, including the workshop coorganized with the Universitat de les Illes Balears that took place from 7–11 May 2007 in Palma de Mallorca, Spain on “Building and ecosystem approach to aquaculture”. The workshop participants, a multidisciplinary and multinational group of experts, agreed that: “An ecosystem approach for aquaculture (EAA) is a strategy for the integration of the activity within the wider ecosystem in such a way that it promotes sustainable development, equity, and resilience of interlinked social and ecological systems”. Such strategy should be guided by three main principles that should ensure the contribution of aquaculture to sustainable development: i) aquaculture should be developed in the context of ecosystem functions and services with no degradation of these beyond their resilience capacity; ii) aquaculture should improve human wellbeing and equity for all relevant stakeholders; and iii) aquaculture should be developed in the context of (and integrated to) other relevant sectors. Three scales/levels of EAA application were identified and discussed: the farm; the waterbody and its watershed/ aquaculture zone; and the global, market-trade scale. These proceedings present the output of this workshop and include contributed papers on: concepts, principles, scales and management measures; human dimensions; economic implications; and legal implications; that are relevant for an ecosystem-based management to the sector. Two comprehensive review papers cover the status of brackish, marine and freshwater aquaculture under the light of an ecosystem-based management, indicating the major shortfalls and opportunities for such an approach are also included.
Clearly, the implementation of the EAA will require changes in human behaviour and understanding of ecosystem’s functioning; it will also require the development of institutions capable of integrating different sectors including aquaculture, especially in terms of shared agreed objectives and standards. As some of the reviews point out, scarce participatory processes, poor understanding of social sustainability requirements and poor governance hinders the widespread adoption of an ecosystem approach to aquaculture. Therefore more guidance is needed on these matters; these proceedings attempt to contribute to that by providing baseline information and some initial guidance.
Halwart, M., Soto, D., Arthur, J.R., 2007. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 498, FAO, Rome, Italy 
Cage aquaculture has grown rapidly during the past decades and is presently undergoing swift changes in response to pressures from globalization and an escalating worldwide global demand for aquatic products. There has been a move toward clustering existing cages as well as toward the development and use of more intensive cage-farming systems. In particular, the need for suitable sites has resulted in cage aquaculture accessing and expanding into new untapped open-water culture areas such as lakes, reservoirs, rivers and coastal brackish and marine offshore waters. This report aims to assess the current situation and the future prospects of cage aquaculture around the globe. It is organized into nine chapters including a global overview and eight reviews covering China, Asia (excluding China), northern Europe, the Mediterranean, sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, North America and Oceania. The report recognizes the tremendous importance of cage aquaculture today and its key role for the future growth of the aquaculture sector. Each review, by geographic region, informs about the history and origin of cage aquaculture; provides detailed information on the current situation; outlines the major regional issues and challenges; and highlights specific technical, environmental, socio-economic and marketing issues that cage aquaculture faces and/or needs to address in the future. The global overview discusses trends in cage aquaculture based on the most recent and complete data available; summarizes the information on cultured species, culture systems and culture environments; and explores the way forward for cage aquaculture, which offers especially promising options for multitrophic integration of current coastal aquaculture systems as well as expansion and further intensification at increasingly offshore sites.
Seaweed
FC, 2007. Monitor - Results measurement for advisory services, IFC International Finance Corporation 
Seaweed is a major source of income for tens of thousands of small Indonesian farmers, as well as collectors, traders, exporters, and producers. In 2004, IFC’s Program for Eastern Indonesia Small and Medium Enterprise Assistance (PENSA) recognized the growing economic opportunities around the 100 million dollar Indonesian market for seaweed, and that Indonesia had no effective advisory services program for seaweed farmers, and launched SEAplant, which provided a spectrum of services including training on various aspects of the seaweed process including planting, harvesting and postharvest handling; market information; established new and higher-priced sales channels, and encouraged the development of farmer cooperatives and local value-added seaweed-processing facilities. In 2005 and 2006, two different independent project evaluations were conducted. The valuable lessons learned at the early stages of the program are broadly relevant to private-sector development programs in agribusiness and beyond.
McHugh, D.J., 2003. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 411, FAO, Rome, Italy 
Seaweed is a very versatile product widely used for food in direct human consumption. It is also an ingredient for the global food and cosmetics industries and is used as fertilizer and as an animal feed additive. Total annual value of production is estimated at almost US$ 6 billion of which food products for human consumption represent US$ 5 billion. Total annual use by the global seaweed industry is about 8 million tonnes of wet seaweed. Seaweed can be collected from the wild but is now increasingly cultivated. It falls into three broad groups based on pigmentation; brown, red and green seaweed. Use of seaweed as food has strong roots in Asian countries such as China, Japan and the Republic of Korea, but demand for seaweed as food has now also spread to North America, South America and Europe. China is by far the largest seaweed producer followed by the Republic of Korea and Japan but seaweeds are today produced in all continents. Red and brown seaweeds are also used to produce hydrocolloids; alginate, agar and carrageenan, which are used as thickening and gelling agents. Today, approximately 1 million tonnes of wet seaweed are harvested and extracted to produce about 55 000 tonnes of hydrocolloids, valued at almost US$ 600 million.
Pong-Masak, P.R., Asaad, A.I., Hasnawi, Makmur, 2009. Konsorsium Mitra Bahari Sulawesi Selatan and COREMAP II - Pangkep, Makassar and Pangkajene, Indonesia "We are sorry an English translation is not available yet"
Budidaya rumput laut sangat prospektif menjadi alternatif usaha bagi pemanfaatan lahan perairan di pulau-pulau kecil untuk peningkatan ekonomi masyarakat dan meminimasi tekanan terhadap sumberdaya kelautan dan perikanan disekitarnya. Untuk keberhasilan usaha budidaya, maka pemilihan lokasi budidaya melalui kegiatan inventarisasi dan pemetaan potensi sumberdaya lahan merupakan tahapan awal yang harus dilakukan. Kegiatan ini bertujuan menentukan kelayakan lahan perairan untuk kegiatan pengembangan budidaya rumput laut di Gusung Batua, Pulau Badi, Kabupaten Pangkep, Sulawesi Selatan. Kegiatan dilakukan dengan metode survei pendekatan SIG untuk mendapatkan data primer (kualitas lingkungan perairan, keterlindungan, substrat dasar, dan tingkat pencemaran perairan) dan data sekunder (geografis lokasi, sosial-ekonomi kependudukan, sumberdaya, sarana-prasarana). Data dianalisis dengan metode PATTERN berdasarkan kriteria dari berbagai sumber untuk menentukan tingkat kelayakan lahan bagi pengembangan budidaya rumput laut. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa perairan Gusung Batua di Pulau Badi memiliki potensi lahan seluas 991,3 Hektar untuk pengembangan budidaya rumput laut dengan tingkat kelayakan tinggi 42,1 ha (4,2 %), tingkat kelayakan sedang 660,3 ha (66,6 %), tingkat kelayakan rendah 156,8 ha (15,8 %), dan tidak layak 132,1 ha (13,3). Prospektif usaha budidaya rumput laut yang ditunjukkan oleh nilai B/C ratio sebesar sebesar 2.09 pada siklus 1 (indikator nilai B/C ratio > 1 = usaha yang layak/menguntungkan) dan siklus selanjutnya dengan nilai B/C ratio sebesar 5.46 (sangat menguntungkan). Prospektif tersebut didukung oleh letak geografis, ketersediaan sarana-prasarana untuk budidaya, tenaga kerja, dan pemasaran. Mengingat bahwa rumput laut tidak produktif tumbuh sepanjang tahun, maka untuk menghindari kegagalan panen sangat diperlukan kajian lanjut untuk menentukan kelender musim tanam rumput laut yang produktif di Gusung Batua dan sekaligus sebagai representatif lokasi-lokasi lain sekitarnya.
Trono, G.C.J., Rabanal, H.R., Santika, I., 1980. FAO/UNDP South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme, FAO, Manila, Philippines 
Upon the request of the Government of Indonesia, a short-term technical assistance on seaweed farming was rendered. The authors gathered available background information and field work led by the senior author was conducted in four selected provinces in the country in April 1980. Nine sites were surveyed, three of which were identified as suitable sites for pilot demonstration of seaweed farming. A programme of development of these farms and the facilities and training needs required are described. A draft proposal for technical assistance project in this type of seafarming is appended.
Tiensongrusmee, B., 1999. UNDP/FAO Regional Seafarming Develpment and Demonstration Project (RAS/90/002), National Inland Fisheries Institute, Kasetsart University Campus and FAO, Bangkok, Thailand and Rome, Italy 
Seaweed are important raw materials in the manufacture of phytocolloids like alginates, agar, and carrageenan which are used in food production, pharmaceuticals and other industrial products. Carrageenan is used in a wide variety of food products as a gelling agent, viscosity builder and stabilizing and emulsifying agent. For example in dairy products such as ice cream, sherbets, chocolates, custards, cake topping and fillings, milk shakes, yoghurts, and liquid products including beers, dessert gel, canned foods, fish gel, and sauces. Non-food products include surgical jellies, lotions and ointment, toothpastes, paints, shampoos, medicinals and artificial food for fishes. The major seaweed used for the production of carrageenan are of the genera Chondrus, Gigartina (temperate species), Eucheuma and Hypnea (tropical species). At present Eucheuma farming is widely practiced among artisanal fishermen in the Philippines, Indonesia and Fiji. It is one of the seafarming commodities that require low capital investment and has a rapid rate of return. The farming of Eucheuma is a way of improving family income of the village fishermen. It also creates employment opportunities especially in the rural areas, and can promote the expansion of industrial production based on locally available, renewable raw materials, and increase in foreign exchange earnings through export of these raw materials and/or industrial products derived from them. These make seaweed farming important to rural development in the Asia-Pacific region.
Fish
Garcia, L.M.B., Hilomen-Garcia, G.V., 2009. Aquaculture Research 40, 211-217
This paper examines the feasibility of rearing10-15-day- and 0.7-1.5-month-old seahorse Hippocampus kuda in illuminated sea cages to continue existing hatchery protocols to mass produce H. kuda for trade and enhance depleted wild stocks in their natural habitats. Thawed Acetes (a planktonic crustacean abundant in inshore seas) was fed to juvenile seahorses in lighted and unlighted sea cages while one group in lighted cages was not fed Acetes. After 10-12 weeks of rearing, both mean body weight and stretch height increased inall treatment groups,with lighted cage-reared seahorses fed Acetes being heavier (2 g) and longer (8 cm) than the other two treatment groups. Although instantaneous growth rates declined during the rearing period, these were generally higher among Acetes-fed seahorses in lighted cages (0.02-0.07) compared with those in the unlighted cages with Acetes and lighted cages without Acetes feeding. Mean survivorship in all groups ranged from 9% to 74% after the trials, but mean survivorship of juveniles in lighted cages with Acetes feeding (9-74%) was consistently lower than the two treatment groups as a likely result of crustacean and piscine predators being attracted by light and the odour of leftover Acetes in the lighted cages. These results demonstrate that light-attracted zooplankton prey supplemented by Acetes feeding may provide essential nutrients for the growth of H. kuda juveniles in illuminated sea cages. With further improvement in the grow-out protocol, it may provide a possible alternative livelihood to seahorse fishers and sfficient seed to re-populate depleted wild stocks of H. kuda.
Hair, C., 2007. ACIAR Monograph No. 127, Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra, Australia 
People of the Pacific islands have been exporting marine animals to the international aquarium trade for many years. They mainly trade in colourful, pretty coral reef-fish (such as butterflyfish, angelfish, triggerfish), corals and clams. Fish and other animals are collected by divers and sold to countries such as the United States, Japan and Europe, where they are kept in tanks for people to look at and enjoy. This manual is about a new method for Pacific islanders to catch valuable fish and crustaceans (lobster and shrimp) to supply the aquarium trade. This new method is called ‘capture and grow-out’ and it involves three steps: 1) catching fish and crustaceans in their postlarval state, 2) growing, or rearing, them to a marketable size and 3) selling them for profit. This manual will explain the stages involved in setting up a ‘capture and grow-out’ operation and will help you decide if this business is right for you and your community.
Sim, S.-Y., Rimmer, M.A., Williams, K., Toledo, J.D., Sugama, K., Rumengan, I., Phillips, M.J., 2005b. NACA, Bangkok, Thailand 
Farming of groupers (members of the Serranidae, subfamily Epinephelinae) is widely practised in Asia, particularly in the tropical East (China, Hong Kong SAR, Taiwan Province of China) and Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam). Most grouper species bring high prices in local or export markets, and thus are an attractive culture proposition for coastal aquaculture farmers. Groupers are carnivorous and consequently prefer feeds high in fi sh protein. Most farms in Asia still rely on what is commonly termed ‘trash fish’. The term trash fish is inaccurate in that these fish species would not necessarily otherwise be wasted, and alternative uses include protein sources for other agricultural commodities (such as pigs and poultry) or even human food, consumed directly or as fish sauce. In some cases, socalled trash fish may even be valuable juveniles that have potential as adults to contribute to a productive fishery. Despite the apparent abundance and availability of trash fish in many areas, there are several major issues and problems related to its use in fish farming.
Sim, S.-Y., Rimmer, M.A., Toledo, J.D., Sugama, K., Rumengan, I., Williams, K.C., Phillips, M.J., 2005a. NACA, Bangkok, Thailand 
Recent improvements in hatchery production technology for high-value marine finfish species such as groupers have led to an increased interest in setting up hatcheries to produce fingerlings for aquaculture. Small-scale hatcheries make this technology available to poor people in developing countries. Capital costs for small-scale hatcheries are relatively low, and the profitability of these ventures ensures rapid payback of capital investment. This guide provides an outline of the requirements to establish a small-scale marine finfish hatchery, particularly the economic aspects. It is intended to provide sufficient information for potential investors to decide whether investment in such ventures is appropriate for them. The guide provides some basic technical information in order to give an indication of the level of technical expertise necessary to operate a small-scale marine finfish hatchery. However, it is not intended as a detailed technical guide to
the operation of small-scale hatcheries. Additional resources, such as training courses in marine finfish hatchery production, are available and these are listed in this document. Development of small-scale hatcheries may be more appropriate where there are existing marine hatchery operations, e.g. for shrimp or milkfish. By definition, small-scale hatcheries do not have broodstock facilities, so a supply of fertilised eggs (usually from a larger hatchery) is essential. Access to fertilised eggs and experienced hatchery staff will limit the application of small-scale hatchery technology. Despite this, there is considerable potential for this technology to be widely adopted. This guide has been written by a team of experts in marine finfish aquaculture who have been involved in a multinational collaborative research project since 1999. This research project, funded by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR), has made an important contribution to improving the sustainability of marine finfish aquaculture by improving hatchery production of high-value species, particularly groupers. Further details of research undertaken as part of project FIS/97/73 Improved hatchery and grow-out technology for grouper aquaculture in the Asia-Pacific region are available from the project website: http://www.enaca.org/aciar/
Shrimp
FAO, 2007. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 446, FAO, Rome, Italy 
The successful farming of tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) in India is mainly due to the existence of some 300 hatcheries whose capacity to produce 12 000 million postlarvae (PL) annually has provided an assured supply of seed. However, the sustainability of the sector is still hampered by many problems, foremost among these being a reliance on wild-caught broodstock whose supply is limited both in quantity and in seasonal availability and that are often infected with pathogens. The current low quality of hatchery produced PL due to infection with white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) and other pathogens entering the hatcheries via infected broodstock, contaminated intake water or other sources due to poor hatchery management practices, including inadequate biosecurity, is a major obstacle to achieving sustainable shrimp aquaculture in India and the Asia-Pacific region. Considering the major contribution of the tiger shrimp to global shrimp production and the economic losses resulting from disease outbreaks, it is essential that the shrimp-farming sector invest in good management practices for the production of healthy and quality seed. This document reviews the current state of the Indian shrimp hatchery industry and provides detailed guidance and protocols for improving the productivity, health management, biosecurity and sustainability of the sector. Following a brief review of shrimp hatchery development in India, the major requirements for hatchery production are discussed under the headings: infrastructure, facility maintenance, inlet water quality and treatment, wastewater treatment, biosecurity, standard operating procedures (SOPS), the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) approach, chemical use during the hatchery production process and health assessment. Pre-spawning procedures covered include the use of wild, domesticated and specific pathogen free/ specific pathogen resistant (SPF/SPR) broodstock; broodstock landing centres and holding techniques; broodstock selection, transport, utilization, quarantine, health screening, maturation, nutrition and spawning; egg hatching; nauplius selection; egg/ nauplius disinfection and washing and holding, disease testing and transportation of nauplii. Post-spawning procedures covered include: larval-rearing unit preparation, larval rearing/health management, larval nutrition and feed management, important larval diseases, general assessment of larval condition, quality testing/selection of PL for stocking, PL harvest and transportation, nursery rearing, timing of PL stocking, use of multiple species in shrimp hatcheries, and documentation and record keeping. Information on the use of chemicals in shrimp hatcheries and examples of various forms for hatchery record keeping are included as Annexes.
Tobey, J., Poespitasari, H., Wiryawan, B., 2001. USAID/BAPPENAS NRM II Program, Jakarta, Indonesia 
This paper presents a case study of a pilot project in Indonesia that is working to promote environmentally responsible and sustainable shrimp aquaculture. The project is located in Pematang Pasir, a coastal village located in Lampung Province on the island of Sumatra, in Indonesia. Lampung Province is the second largest shrimp-producing province in Indonesia. It has achieved this status over a very short period of time. Like so many other places around the world, the rate of growth has overwhelmed government capacity to plan and guide shrimp aquaculture growth in a responsible manner. The pilot project in Pematang Pasir is part of the Indonesian Coastal Resources Management Project (Proyek Pesisir) whose overall objective is to decentralize and strengthen coastal resource planning and management.4 As a “pilot” project, it is intended to test and expand knowledge of effective methods and lessons learned that could be replicated in other locations on a wider scale. This paper describes what has been learned to date, and offers strategies, methods and tools of community-based coastal resource management that can be used worldwide in efforts directed at analyzing constraints to adoption of good practices for shrimp farming and how to overcome them.
Other invertebrates
Conand, C., Purcell, S.W., Uthicke, S., Hamel, J.-F., Mercier, A., 2004. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 463, FAO, Rome, Italy 
This document is a collection of all the technical papers presented at the international Workshop on Advances in Sea Cucumber Aquaculture and Management (ASCAM) held from 14 to 18 October 2003 in Dalian (Liaoning Province), People's Republic of China, and organized by the FAO Fisheries Department. The publication is divided into four sections. The first part includes the introduction and recommendations made by the participants on issues concerning sea cucumber resource management and aquaculture. The next sections contain the technical papers presented and discussed at the workshop sessions, namely (i) on the status of resources and utilization (Session I), (ii) on resource management (Session II), and (iii) on aquaculture advances (Session III). The first section introduces up-to-date information on the present status of world sea cucumber resources and utilization with special focus on those countries such as China, Ecuador, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia and the Philippines which have been heavily involved in the industry for decades. Information from other countries such as Cuba, Egypt, Madagascar and Tanzania, relative newcomers to the sector, is also provided indicating to some extent the growing interest with regards to the exploitation of holothurians for the increasing Asian markets. The section on resource management focuses on the experiences of countries, highlighting progress made as well as identifying the constraints and knowledge gaps that need to be addressed to ensure adequate management of these multispecies fisheries. Issues raised include whether restocking and stock enhancement should be used to manage sea cucumber fisheries. The third section presents information on technical advances made in the artificial reproduction and farming of selected commercial species, particularly for the Japanese sea cucumber, Apostichopus japonicus. Furthermore, the workshop in Dalian provided the opportunity to share findings from on-going research activities on a variety of other sea cucumber species including the Galapagos sea cucumber, Isostichopus fuscus. The interest in holothurian aquaculture is clearly growing. This is evident from the number of countries participating in sea cucumber aquaculture research, possibly as a result of declining natural resources or national aquaculture species diversification programmes. The workshop recommendations were formulated and agreed during discussion sessions and are designed to help international and regional development organizations and national governments prioritize their activities concerning sea cucumber conservation and exploitation.
Iga-Oka, S., Putu-Kirana, P., I-Nyoman, GU., Field of Social Economic, The Faculty of Agriculture, Udayana University, Denpasar. 
Objective of this research was to understand the marketing strategy developed by CV. Bali Aquarium, and to develop an applicable alternative. Bali Aquarium is a coral export business. Coral is produced with fragmentation technology at a location far away from the original coral habitat.The results indicate that CV. Bali Aquarium has developed strategies for segmentation, targeting, positioning, differentiation, marketing mix (product, price, and place), selling, service and process. However, brand image and promotion have not been developed yet. Alternative marketing strategies that can be developed and implemented by CV. Bali Aquarium are improvement of brand image and promotion, taking advantage of the benefits of coral propagation technology for environmental protection in order to improve brand perception at the customer level.
Alternative Livelihoods
Satkar Rehabilitasi dan Pengelolaan Terumbu Karang (COREMAP II), Direktorat Jenderal Kelautan, Pesisir dan Pulau-Pulau Kecil, Departemen Kelautan dan Perikanan, 2006 "We are sorry an English translation is not available yet")
Pertumbuhan populasi di masyarakat khususnya masyarakat nelayan yang memiliki ketergantungan terhadap sumberdaya alam membuat tekanan terhadap sumberdaya alam meningkat, untuk itu perlu dikembangkan sebuah program pengembangan mata pencaharian alternatif. Memahami konsep mata pencaharian alternatif sangatlah penting, terutama saat bekerja dengan masyarakat yang memiliki ketergantungan pada sumber daya alam. Tujuan pembuatan panduan mata pencaharian alternatif adalah:Menyediakan panduan praktis kegiatan usaha mata pencaharian alternatif yang dapat menurunkan tekanan terhadap ekosistem terumbu karang, Menyediakan panduan praktis kegiatan usaha kecil masyarakat untuk peningkatan kesejahteraan.
Department for International Develpment, 2001. London, UK 
The livelihoods approach is a way of thinking about the objectives, scope and priorities for development. A specific livelihoods framework and objectives have been developed to assist with implementation, but the approach goes beyond these. In essence it is a way of putting people at the centre of development, thereby increasing the effectiveness of development assistance. This set of Guidance Sheets attempts to summarise and share emerging thinking on the sustainable livelihoods approach. It does not offer definitive answers and guidelines. Instead, it is intended to stimulate readers to reflect on the approach and make their own contributions to its further development. The sustainable livelihoods framework The framework, which is presented in schematic form below and discussed in detail in Section 2 of the Guidance Sheets, has been developed to help understand and analyse the livelihoods of the poor. It is also useful in assessing the effectiveness of existing efforts to reduce poverty. Like all frameworks, it is a simplification; the full diversity and richness of livelihoods can be understood only by qualitative and participatory analysis at a local level. The framework does not attempt to provide an exact representation of reality. It does, however, endeavour to provide a way of thinking about the livelihoods of poor people that will stimulate debate and reflection, thereby improving performance in poverty reduction. In its simplest form, the framework views people as operating in a context of vulnerability. Within this context, they have access to certain assets or poverty reducing factors. These gain their meaning and value through the prevailing social, institutional and organisational environment. This environment also influences the livelihood strategies - ways of combining and using assets – that are open to people in pursuit of beneficial livelihood outcomes that meet their own livelihood objectives.
SPC, 1997. South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia 
After studying this training manual, participants should be able to:
1. Understand that preservation is one of a number of ways for processing seafoods;
2. Identify the main causes of fish spoilage and explain how salting and drying reduce spoilage;
3. Describe the steps in carrying out salting and drying, paying particular attention to ensuring careful handling of the raw material during preparation, processing and storage;
4. Identify and prevent fish spoilage due to incorrect preservation methods.
5. Preserve fish and shellfish by carrying out practical exercises in salting and drying.
Vining, J.G., 2007. MSc, University of Wisconsin, Madison, USA 
Ocean energy conversion has been of interest for many years. Recent developments such as concern over global warming have renewed interest in the topic. Part 1 focuses on wave energy converters (WEC) as opposed to ocean current energy converters. The point absorber and oscillating water column WEC devices are addressed with regards to commercial prospects, environmental concerns, and current state-of-the art. Part 1 also provides an overview of the energy found in ocean waves and how each type of device utilizes the available ocean wave energy. Part II of the study focuses on wave energy business and legal jurisdiction issues as there is no clear economic model or legal process for developers to follow. These issues are addressed with regards to siting license dilemmas, which government agencies may assert jurisdiction, economic / business incentives for renewables, and wave energy economic factors. Part II also investigates regulatory actions and incentive programs needed to promote wave energy conversion technology. All topics are discussed from the view point of an engineer on the subject of making emerging technologies such as wave energy converters successful. In Part III, the various direct-drive (linear) generators are assessed. These generators are evaluated based on their shear stress density, cogging, power factor, cost, manufacturability, etc. Linear generator design factors, power conditioning techniques, and control strategies are also discussed. The merits of each model are considered and with each other, concluding with recommendations for future wave energy converters.
